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Modern barscale reading instruments are becoming commonplace. Electronic Distance Measurement An electronic distance-measuring (EDM) instrument emits electromagnetic radiation, which is modulated with a known frequency (giving a known wavelength). The signal is returned by a retro-reflector from the forepoint end of a line, and the phase of the returned waveform is electronically compared to that of the transmitted signal. The measurement of phase differences on several modulated frequencies provides information used to compute the distance between the EDM and a reflector.
From there, each user can make informed decisions about whether or not the spatial data accuracy is sufficient to support a given application. Errorless Spatial Data Must Also Be Accommodated Several cases exist in which spatial data are considered errorless. Examples include (1) spatial data created during the design process, (2) physical dimensions (such as the width of a street right-of-way) defined by ordinance or statute, and (3) spatial data whose standard deviations are small enough to be judged insignificant for a given application.
Anderson, and E. Mikhail. 1981. Surveying: Theory and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. , M. Reichardt, D. Nebert, S. Blake, and D. Robertson. 1999. The Global Spatial Data Infrastructure initiative and its relationship to the vision of a digital Earth. Paper presented by Peter Holland at the International Symposium on Digital Earth, Beijing, China, 29 November–2 December. Leick, A. 2004. GPS satellite surveying, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley. Mikhail, E. 1976. Observations and least squares. New York: Harper & Row.
